A Brief History of Workers’ Movements in India, with focus on Bengal
This histoy is by SSKU, an independent, non-party affiliated trade-union working at Hindustan Motors, West Bengal. Such unions which are free of party allegiance and government interest have often been successful in representing workers’ rights and bettering their conditions, for example the Chattisgarh Mukti Morcha of Sankar Guha Niyogi. For SSKU’s recent activities, click here. For a summary of the condition of factories in West Bengal, government corruption, sellout to big capital and illegal mass usage of industrial land for real estate, click here.
Industrial proletariat emerged in India in the middle of 1800 when Indian railway came into being along with its ancillary industries. Great Indian Railway Company and Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company (both were private enterprises) installed the first railways tracks in India in 1853 and in 1859 respectively. These developments were fuelled by the discovery of huge coal reserves in undivided Bengal in 1770. 1843 saw the birth of the first coal mines under the aegis of another private enterprise, The Bengal Coal Company. The first large scale mining operation started in Jharia. The British Tea Company, Assam Tea, started operating from 1839.
This has set the proper backdrop for the emergence of industrial proletariat in India, particularly in undivided Bengal. The first ever Jute Mill in the sub-continent started operating in Bengal, at Rishra in 1854, in the same district of Bengal where Hindusthan Motors is currently situated. The first ever cotton mill in India was established in Bauria, a suburb of the city of Calcutta (now renamed as Kolkata) in 1818. By 1880, India witnessed the growth of about 58 spinning and textile mills spanning all the major Presidencies (administrative division of British India) of our country. Tagore’s ancestor, Prince Dwarkanath Tagore, not only founded the indigenous indigo company, but also purchased the Chinakuri coal mines in 1837 and founded The Bengal Coal Company. Jamshedji Tata founded the Tata Iron and Steel Works in 1908.
What was the condition of the workers under the British rule in those days? In 1833, Ram Mohan Ray, a representative of the landed gentry, had described the plight of the workers in the most thorough-going manner. The skilled workers in those days used to earn about 10-12 rupees a month, while unskilled ones would earn about 4 rupees a month. The consumer price index, in those days had a hike increase of about 75% compared to 1820. It may be mentioned that the wage of the jute workers remained stagnant during the period 1860 to 1892! During the period 1901 to 1911, the increase in the labour force in the construction sector was 18.2% and that of in the transport sector was 29.4%.
What was the working condition of the workers in those days? According to a Royal Commission of Labour, instituted by the British imperialists in 1933, the working hours in all the cotton mills were 13 to 15 hours a day. The report of the Textile Factories Labour Committee mentioned in 1906 that the conditions inside the factories were “inhuman”, the workers had to “put in hard labour” and after the shift was over, “they were so exhausted that a large number of them used to get fainted within the factory premises”. The condition of the female workers was deplorable. Employing of child labour was rampant. The factory Labour Commission of 1908 noted that children in the age group 5-7 constituted a major workforce in most of the factories. 40% of the part-time workers were under-age children. In the jute mills, children in the age group 7-9 used to travel about 4 km in the early morning to reach the factory in time!
In the labour front, a real anarchy was the call of the day. There were no redressal forum, nor was there any process through which the workers could raise their legitimate demands democratically before the employers. Yet, the workers organized themselves and were trying to assert their rights. To “discipline” the budding labour movement, “Employers’ and Workers’ (Disputes) Act, 1860” was passed. Among other aspects, this Act conferred enormous power on the employer to coerce the workers. For example, according to this Act, an employer can institute fine or confine the worker to the factory premises lawfully for an indefinite period, should the workers refuse to “obey” the whims of the employer. In the same year, to tighten the coercive role of the state, the Britishers had instituted the Indian Penal Code, 1860, which is still in vogue in our country with only minor modifications. Finally, after a lot of blood-bath on the part of the workers and pressure from the civil society, Indian Factory Act, 1881, was passed, which banned the employment of a child below 7 years of age in a factory and fixed the working hour of workforce in the age group 7-12 at 9 hours!
Labour Movement in Bengal and India - A glorious Tradition:
Sashipada Banerjee was a person whom the labour movements of India should bow their head to. He started publishing a journal exclusively devoted to the labourers in 1878 from Kolkata – BHARAT SRAMAJIBI (INDIAN LABOURERS) - which started expressing the labour problems for the first time. He also founded the “BARANAGAR INSTITUTE” in 1880, to spread primary and hygiene education among the workers. A similar effort was initiated by Meghaji Narayain Lokhande in Bombay, (now renamed as Mumbai) in 1898; he also started a journal, named DEENABANDHU (FRIEND OF THE POOR) in Marathi language. Bhramho Samaj, in a parallel effort, founded the “WORKING MENS’ MISSION” to promote justice and spiritualism among the industrial workers. Sashipada Banerjee then founded a Savings Bank exclusively for the workers in Kolkata.
Bengal can pride herself in attaining the landmark in the history of labour movement of India. It took place in the same district in which HM is currently situated. Much ahead of their European brethren, Indian railway men joined a first ever strike in the month of April and May, 1862 demanding an 8-hours-a-day working pattern. The historic May Day in Chicago would take place around quarter of a century later. In the same year, the bullock-cart drivers went on a historic strike, which has shaken the fabric of the then Bengali society. The other provinces of India were not very far behind – Madras Presidency witnessed about 25 strikes and cease of work during the period 1882 to 1890. The Jute Mills of Bengal were run like a sweat-shop in those days, as it is run today. In the district of Howrah in Bengal, the Ghusuri Mill witnessed wild cat strikes twice in the years 1881 and 1890. In 1895 and in 1896, the Budge Budge Jute Mill in the suburbs of Kolkata witnessed the mightiest of the labour movements in the decade.
Up till now, all the strikes were limited to the firms and factories owned by the private owners, British or Indian employers alike. The labour movements struck with its mighty fist against the British Rulers when in 1905, the workers in the Government Press of the Indian Government joined a month-long strike which culminated in a historic victory for the workers. In the same year, the workers of the Burn Company in Howrah ceased work; the workers in the newly founded Tramways in Kolkata also followed suit. The cleaning staff of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (a mighty work force numbering about 2000) ceased work and achieved a partial success as regards to their demands. In 1906, the Clive Jute Mill workers struck work and achieved victory. The Guards entrusted to oversee the smooth movements of the goods train of the East India Railways struck work to achieve yet another victory. In the same year, the British-owned Hoogly Jute Mill in Bengal witnessed a massive workers’ movement and stalled the introduction of night-shift without adequate infrastructure provided by the company.
November 18, 1907 was a historic day in the annals of Indian Labour Movement, when the railway workmen in Asansol, in Bengal, started a cease work in support of their 43-point charter. The strike had spread rapidly in the whole country and no train could reach Kolkata for a few days. The Kolkata Port went idle and the Port workers absented themselves in solidarity with the striking railway workmen.
The first political strike by the Indian proletariat took place in July 13, 1908, when the workers of the Greeves and Cotton Mill in Bombay ceased work protesting against the trial of Indian nationalist Leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Lenin wasted no time to highlight the historic significance of these movements by the Indian workers. In the same year, two workers’ organizations were founded in Kolkata (Mohamedan Association and Indian Labour Union). As the workers of India and Bengal started organizing themselves, they were in a better position to offer resistance to the British imperialism and also attained a better bargaining edge to protect and extend their legitimate rights. Thus in Bengal alone, in the 1920s, about 119 major industrial strikes took place, notable among them being the cease work in the India Government Press once again.
In Bengal, a large number of labour organizations came into being, notable among them being The Press Employees Association, Calcutta (1919), The Calcutta Tramways Employees Union (1919), Howrah Labour Union (1920), E.B. Railways Indian Employees Association (1920) and Bengal Mariners Union (1920). In 1919, the International Labour Organisation was founded as a part of the then League of Nations. In its first Conference, a pro-labour nationalist leader, B P Wadia represented for India.
In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded through a national convention which took place in Bombay during the period October 31 to November 2. The effect of such a historic event was evident almost immediately as the country saw a dramatic rise in the number of strikes. In 1921, only one year after the founding of the AITUC, as it is known today, the number of strikes rose to 376.
Workers’ Organisation
In November 1, 1925 the Workers’ and Peasants Party was founded in Bengal. Soon many branches of this organization started spreading in other parts of India. Finally in December 1928, through an India-wide convention in Kolkata, the All India Workers and Peasant Party was born.
The textile barons of Bombay decided to reduce some of the allowances of the textile workers. To protest against such an act, 0.16 million workers ceased work from September 1925. The strike lasted for more than 11 days and the withdrawal of allowances was rolled back by the mill owners.
Bengal Jute Workers’ Association was formed in 1925.
February 11, 1927 witnessed a massive cease work by the railway men in the Kharagpore Division in Bengal. Taking cue from the successful strike by the railway workers in the Kharagpore Division, the railway workers of Liluah, in the district of Howrah, ceased work from March 28, 1928 and their demands were met. For the first time perhaps in the annals of workers’ struggle in India, from 1927 onwards, the May Day celebrations became a part of asserting workers’ rights.
The Jute workers of the mills owned by the British Lords called a General Strike in 1929. Bauria Jute played the pioneering role in this regard.
Once again in April 9, 1936, ignoring the terror unleashed by the owners, about 20 thousand workers of Hukum Chand Jute Mill ceased work and they were successful in recovering the basic rights which were systematically curtailed over the years by the management.
The historic Jute workers strike would go down as a milestone in workers’ struggle because of its glorious role. 0.25 Million workers took part in the strike which began on February 26, 1937 and lasted 74 days long!
In the tumultuous years of 1936-1937, Bengal was in the top of the list in terms of the number of strikes. Out of the total strikes that took place throughout the country, 62% of them took place in Bengal alone. In those days, the total number of workers joining the strike rose from a 0.3 million in the yesteryears to 1 million! The Engineering industry witnessed about 8 major industrial strikes in 1937.
When the Second World War was in full swing, in 1940, 20 thousand workers of Calcutta Municipal Corporation organized a strike and partial success was achieved. During the period 1940-1943, Bengal witnessed a series of medium to large-scale workers’ strike involving millions of workers in almost every firm and mill.
The historic all-India Post and Telegraph workers’ strike started from July 11, 1946. In support to these strikes, common people of India started lending their assistance. The city of Calcutta became absolutely paralysed when a virtual general strike was called to extend support to the striking workers!
After 1947, there was a dramatic change that took place in the workers movement arena of our country. Various Central Trade Unions were founded, resulting in a division of the strength of the collective bargaining power of the workers. The rulers gave a clarion call to the workers to suspend their demands to build the country and sacrifice for the “Greater Common Good”.
But the workers were fighting relentlessly to maintain the rights that they had earned over the decades. 1947 witnessed about 1811 strikes, while 1950 witnessed only 814 strikes in the divided India.
The workers of the organized sector (government and semi-governmental offices) started a wildcat strike from the mid-night of July 11, 1960. The police took recourse to terrible repression; several rounds of fire were targeted towards the striking workers, five workers became martyrs, 20 thousand workers were arrested. 2.5 million workers of the Central Government sector joined a strike in September 19, 1968.
CITU was founded at Lenin Nagar, Kolkata during the period May 28-30, 1970.
The historic railway strike took place in May, 1974, which shook the entire political fabric of our country and ushered in a new tide of movements throughout the country.
Our country witnessed unprecedented upsurge in mass movements during the seventies. Afraid of the tides of movements, the ruling class suspended all democratic rights of the people by declaring an “Internal Emergency” from the mid-night of June 25, 1975. It continued for about 18 months. During those 18 months, the repression perpetrated by the ruling class knew no bounds; peasant leaders were hanged for the first time after 1947 for initiating political struggle against the government. Several sporadic struggles by the workers were organized spontaneously in which the central trade unions had very little or no role at all.
The decade of eighties of the last century in this state witnessed a new turning point as regards the workers’ movement. The workers of different factories of West Bengal started revolting against the anti-Labour move perpetrated by the Central Trade Unions. As a result, the revolting workers started organizing themselves into new consolidations. This process of consolidation gave rise to two distinct trends:
(A) Spontaneous revolts, followed by clashes and violence, that ended sadly in the withdrawal of the movement, and
(B) Initiating organised, unified and protracted movement that culminated in a new form of struggle.
The first trend was embodied in the spontaneous revolt by the workers of Victoria Jute Mill in 1992 and the recent workers’ uprising in the Tea Gardens in North Bengal, where a CITU leader was burnt to death by the angry workers. The second trend was heralded by the victorious workers of the Hindustan Livers. The movement of the Jute Worker of Kanoria Jute Mill in the 90s of the last century had taken the issues and just causes of the workers to the society at large. The message of this trend of movement was taken up by a large number of workers in various factories of the state of West Bengal. The movement of the workers of the Mathkal, Garden Reach Ship Builders, Bauria Cotton Mill and others were the representatives of this trend.
Against the prevailing trend of surrender to Capitalists and the Bureaucratic functioning of the central trade unions, this new trend of workers’ initiative (of which SSKU is a successful instance) is holding high the banner of internal democracy, honesty and fighting for the just causes of the workers.
The same trend is continuing today and against the real threat of de-unionisation of the workers, the banner of struggle is still flying high. Against the all-round pessimism gripping the Indian society of today, against the virtual acceptance of the globalisation as a fait accompli, the workers are struggling to occupy the driver’s seat to bail out society from the clutches of the capital to usher in a more equitable and egalitarian society. However to make this happen, oppressed and conscious people from all strata have to join hands and call for the day…